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Tacit Knowledge

The term 'tacit knowledge' was introduced by Polanyi (1967). Tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that we have but are unable to explicitly describe. Examples include the ability to recognise faces or ride a bike. Schön (1988) used the phrase 'knowing-in-action' (p. 25) to describe the tacit knowledge that is embedded in intelligent, spontaneous, skilful action. Sternberg (2000) argued that the possession of tacit knowledge can distinguish between more or less practically successful individuals.

Sternberg identified three features of 'tacit knowledge'.

It is acquired with little or no environmental support.
It is procedural, and can be represented in the form of context-specific, condition-action (if-then) pairings.
It is practically useful.

By definition, tacit knowledge may not be available in an explicit, verbal form. Furthermore, to the extent that actions are successful, it may not be necessary to make explicit the implicit knowledge that underpins them (Schön, 1988). However, if actions are less than optimal, or if previously successful methods of approaching situations no longer work because of changing circumstances, then it is necessary to enter into a process of reflection. In order to engage in reflection, tacit knowledge needs to be made explicit.

Schön differentiated between two broad kinds of reflection: 'reflection-in-action' and 'reflection-on-action'. The point of differentiation between the two kinds of reflection is timing. With reflection-in-action, the person apprehends a difficulty in the execution of a task, and through relatively immediate reflection and adjustment is able to make modifications that will improve the concurrent performance of the task. In reflection-on-action, the task is already complete, and so improvements to that episode cannot be made. However, reflection-on-action can be made in order to improve future task engagements. Furthermore, it is possible to reflect on one's previous reflection-in-action. Indeed, 'several levels and kinds of reflection play important roles in the acquisition of artistry' (Schön, 1988, p. 31).

Learning is an action with which lifelong learners, especially teachers, are well acquainted through mandatory and self-selected teaching-learning experiences. Some of what people know about processes of learning will have been the subject of explicit instruction and environmental support, and will therefore be explicitly available in a declarative form. However, much of learners' knowledge about learning is, no doubt, tacit. There is a case to be made for significant gains in the quality of learning actions if learners' tacit knowledge about learning is able to be made explicit, thus permitting both reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Particularly in the case of teachers, who are both learners and teachers of other learners, reflecting in, and on, actions associated with successful learning could be considered an essential requirement for developing, in Schön's terms, 'professional artistry' (p. 33). Reflection enables the practitioner to 'respond to the unexpected or anomalous by restructuring some of her strategies of action, theories of phenomena, or ways of framing the problem' (Schön, 1988, p. 35).

The work of the authors reviewed above suggests that good quality knowledge will have been created through reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. If such good quality knowledge has been created, then both declarative and formerly tacit knowledge have been made available for reflection.

Eliciting people's knowledge about their everyday practice is no easy task, although techniques such as drawing concept maps, responding to scenarios, verbal protocols and focused interviews have proved informative (Anderson, 1987; Askell-Williams & Lawson, in press; Sternberg, 2000; White & Gunstone, 1992; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986). Sternberg (2000) advised that one approach for eliciting tacit knowledge is to engage people in eliciting memories for the episodes that produced their tacit knowledge.

Read more about this topic in Reflective Practice

References
Anderson, J. R. (1987). 'Methodologies for studying human knowledge.' Behavior and Brain Sciences, 10(3), 467-477.

Askell-Williams, H. & Lawson, M. J. (in press). 'Students' knowledge about the value of discussion for teaching and learning.' Social Psychology of Education.

Polanyi, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. New York: Doubleday.

Schön, D. A. (1988). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sternberg, R. J. (2000). Practical intelligence in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

White, R. T. & Gunstone, R. F. (1992). Probing understanding. London: Falmer Press.

Zimmerman, B. J. & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). 'Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies.' American Educational Research Journal, 23, 614-628.