Home | Contact Us

Self-regulation

Self-regulation is perhaps the issue that integrates most completely with a framework of lifelong learning, in post-compulsory education (Brookfield, 1987) and for people generally (Candy, 1991). Self-regulation means that a person is metacognitively, socially, motivationally and behaviourally active in his or her own problem-solving processes using self-observation, self-judgment and self-reaction to attend to information; plan and manage time; process, integrate and organise knowledge; code and rehearse information to be remembered (that is, to invoke metacognitive skills); maintain a positive sense of self-efficacy; establish a productive work environment; use social resources effectively; and experience a positive anticipation about the potential outcomes of learning new information (Schunk, 1989; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997; Zimmerman, 1989; Zimmerman, 1995; Zimmerman, 2000).

Zimmerman proposed a three-part, cyclical model of self-regulation.

Forethought: including goal setting, selection of strategies and methods, assessing self-efficacy, assessing mastery or performance goal orientation and assessing interest
Performance control: including focusing attention (excluding distractions and other competing attentions), self-instruction and self-monitoring of progress
Self-reflection: including self-evaluation against a standard or goal, attributions to ability or effort, self-reactions and adaptation

(Condensed from Zimmerman 1990, 1998 and 2002)

Following self-reflection, the person is ready to re-enter the forethought stage of the cycle. At that stage, skilful self-regulators will have built upon their self-efficacious beliefs about their ability to master the task with extra effort and may be developing interest in the task (see also Alexander, 2003; Alexander, Jetton, & Kulikowich, 1995; Alexander & Murphy, 1998). However, inexperienced self-regulators may experience lowered feelings of self-efficacy, a performance-avoidance or failure-avoidance approach, and reducing interest (Zimmerman, 1998).

Strategies for self-regulation
From a review of the research, Zimmerman proposed that self-regulated people plan, set goals, organise, self-monitor and self-evaluate at various points. They are self-aware, knowledgeable and decisive in their approach. They report high self-efficacy, self-attributions and intrinsic task interest. They are self-starters who display effort and persistence. They self-select, structure and create optimal environments. They seek out advice, information and places where they are likely to gather new information. They self-instruct and self-reinforce (Zimmerman, 1990, pp. 4-5).

Social models of self-regulatory behaviour
Schunk and Zimmerman (1997) further developed the concept of self-regulation by arguing that skills of self-regulation are developed within the framework of social-cognitive theory (through observing and imitating social models, and then internalising those skills to achieve, first, self-control and, eventually, self-regulation). Pressley (1995) also stressed the importance of the social environment for the development of self-regulatory skills, in that society provides 'a great deal of modelling and explanation of mature thought' (p. 207).

Teaching and learning self-regulation
Winne (1995) hypothesised that 50% or more of the learning time of teenage and adult learners might be spent in solitary activities, although Pressley (1995) and Alexander (1995) argued that being alone in a physical sense does not necessarily imply that a learner is alone mentally, as he or she recalls the teacher's instructions or calls on a reference book for help. (By implication, a learner who cannot recall the teacher's instructions, or cannot call upon reference books or other banks of knowledge for help, might well be alone). Winne appeared to be referring to learning for traditional educational institution objectives. However, extrapolating to a lifelong learning perspective, it could be that the majority of new learning for adults is conducted in a solitary environment. Such new learning might start with a short period of professional development, but the learner soon withdraws to a personal space to work it out for him or herself.

One interpretation of the social or individual nature of self-regulation is to revisit Schunk and Zimmerman's (1997) continuum of observation of other people through to self-regulation. Therefore, although self-regulation may begin in a social context, its eventual manifestation is individual - applied to a variety of contexts. Pressley (1995) suggested that well-developed self-regulatory skills take many years, if not decades, to develop.

Also essential for the development of self-regulation is the ability to cope with failure in a constructive fashion by redirecting or increasing personal effort, or seeking assistance, rather than resorting to anger, aggression, anxiety or depression (Paris & Byrnes, 1989). People can apparently develop such coping strategies implicitly (perhaps through observing family and peer role models), or through explicit instruction. Butler and Winne (1995) stressed that it is important to understand self-regulation as a system of self-motivation, self-monitoring and strategy selection, but not to confuse those processes with a conception that people should 'struggle on alone'. Support systems such as communities of practice, building self-efficacy, supporting instrumental help-seeking and developing a mentoring mindset in experienced practitioners all contribute to social settings that support the development of individual self-regulation.

References
Alexander, P. A. (2003). Expertise and academic development: A new perspective on a classic theme. Paper presented at the 10th biennial conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (keynote address), Padova, Italy, August.

Alexander, P. A., Jetton, T. L., & Kulikowich, J. M. (1995). 'Interrelationship of knowledge, interest and recall: Assessing a model of domain learning.' Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(4), 559-575.

Alexander, P. A. & Murphy, P. K. (1998). 'Profiling the differences in students' knowledge, interest and strategic processing.' Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 435-447.

Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Butler, D. L. & Winne, P. H. (1995). 'Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis.' Review of Educational Research, 65, 245-281.

Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Paris, S. G. & Byrnes, J. P. (1989). 'The constructivist approach to self-regulation and learning in the classroom.' In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research and practice (pp. 169-200). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Pressley, M. (1995). 'More about the development of self-regulation: Complex, long-term, and thoroughly social.' Educational Psychologist, 30, 201-212.

Schunk, D. H. (1989). 'Social-cognitive theory and self-regulated learning.' In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research and practice (pp. 83-110), New York: Springer-Verlag.

Schunk, D. H. & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). 'Social origins of self-regulatory competence.' Educational Psychologist, 32(4), 195-208.

Winne, P. H. (1995). 'Inherent details in self-regulated learning.' Educational Psychologist, 30, 173-187.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). 'Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement.' In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research and practice (pp. 1-25). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). 'Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview.' Educational Psychologist, 25, 3-17.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). 'Self-regulation involves more than metacognition: A social cognitive perspective.' Educational Psychologist, 30, 217-221.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). 'Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models.' In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford Press.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). 'Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn.' Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82-91.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). 'Becoming a self-regulated learner.' Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 65-70.